蔣中正先生與對日抗戰期間的高等教育(英譯)
蔣中正先生與對日抗戰期間的高等教育(英譯)
Chiang Kai-Shek and the Development of
Higher Education during the Sino-Japanese War
I. Chiang’s High Valuation on Education and His Educational Thoughts
Reviewing the human history, China is the earliest country which had treated education as of great importance. As to other countries, education has been regarded as one of the primary governmental affairs for less than two hundred years. However, three thousand years ago, there was in China the saying, “For the heavenly god blesses people on the earth, so he sends the sage to be their lord and their teacher.”1 So, teaching people was regarded as much important as governing people.
According to the Chapter of the Kingdom’s System of the Book of Li-Chi, all ancient dynasties of Yu, Hsia and Shang had national schools. However, this could not be confirmed due to shortage of historical materials. But since the Chou Dynasty, public schools had been established in every dynasty. This could be confirmed with a lot of records.2 Such a heritage has been in fact established at the democratic thought with which China had long been equipped since its very early age.
The Five Children’s Song of the Book of Hsia records, “People are the foundation of a state. As long as the foundation remains solid, so the state is stable.” The Tai Testmony of the Book of Chou records with more in details, “The heavenly god sees as what people see and hears as what people hear.” The concept that the people rather than the lord are important in a country had rooted in Chinese people’s mind over three thousand years ago. Since people were regarded as the foundation of a state, how to elevate people’s quality would naturally become the primary matter of the state. Therefore, the Chinese traditional high valuation on education had a long history and was heavily related with Chinese heritage.
Since his very early childhood, Mr. Chiang had received Chinese traditional education and had been greatly influenced with Chinese culture. He was also born with a benevolence to treat all youths as his own children and younger brothers and hoped that one generation could become better than the former one. His endeavors have revived China out of the deteriorating trend since the Opium War. As the world culture is confronted with a great change, he has made China to absorb the merits of both Chinese and western cultures to become a spectacular one.3
Since the time Mr. Chiang dedicated himself to politics, he had stuck to the principle that “education is the foundation of a state’s very existence”4 and had valued highly the importance of education. In the winter of 1930, when the Northern Expedition was just finished, as the President of the Executive Yuan, he himself also acted as the Minister of Education. In the spring of 1943, when the war in the Pacific was at its high tide, he appointed himself as the President of National Central University.5 After the Nationalist Government retreated to Taiwan, he had overcome all problems to implement the nine-year compulsory education.
Mr. Chiang not only attached education of great importance, he also had comprehensive understanding and a far-sighted ideal about education. He regarded that education should have its central thoughts. “Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles of the People, which inherits the benevolent moral thoughts of Yao, Shung, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Duke Chou and Confucius, is so immense, comprehensive and faultless that Chinese education should naturally make it as the central thoughts.”6
As to the way of implementation, it should combine literary and martial learnings and have a balanced training of technics and morality. “To be a modern citizen with the mission of dedicating to the renaissance of our country and nation out of danger and deterioration, our people must correct the past habit of referring literary learning to that of martial learnings of equal importance. The eventual goal shall make our country fellows, men and women, to learn martial arts so as to defend themselves as well as the country.”
Mr. Chiang also said, “In ancient time, there were six major disciplines for students to learn: rites, music, shooting, driving, the classics and mathematics. From now on, school education must be based on the spirit of ancient education combining literary and martial learnings into one and learning all six disciplines. Of course, the contents of modern education should be more advanced and comprehensive.” Again he said, “The real spirit of the New Life Movement which we have now promoted is composed of rites, righteousness, frugality and the sense of shame. Those are related closely with intelligence, reliability, benevolence, courage and solemnity. Those are what the basic spirit of the ancient six disciplines. Therefore, the foremost important thing to implement the literary-martial arts education is to do our best to promote the New Life Movement.”7 Chinese education in past a few decades could be found in every aspect Mr. Chiang’s concepts and ideals on education.
During the Sino-Japanese War, China was invaded by the formidable enemy. The destiny of the country was very much in danger. Transportation by sea had been cut off. The economy was of much difficulty. Mr. Chiang, who was heavily burdened with military affairs and other national responsibilities, still did his best to overcome various difficulties to promote education. During the eight years of war, the education of various levels in the inner land had been greatly lifted, even those remote provinces like Sinkiang and Sikang were of no exception. As the War continued, the reconstruction of the country had been done quite successfully. Because of the limited length of it, this article can only describe the development of higher education under Mr. Chiang’s leadership and personal support during the Sino-Japanese War.
II. The Outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War and the Retreat of Universities and Colleges to the Inner Land
On July 7, 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident brought about the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War. Mr. Chiang announced his determination of leading the country to engage in the long-term resistance war. He requested that all personnel and materials in the war zones should be withdrawn to the inner land in order to conserve the country’s capability to resist in the Japanese invasion persistently.
As regards schools, the initial instruction of the Ministry of Education was to continue teaching on each school’s original spot. Later, as the war expanded, the ministry instructed that all bureaus and departments of municipalities and provinces as well as universities and colleges should choose safe areas for possible retreat if the battle approached.8
At the time the decision of the withdrawal of universities and colleges was made, some people wanted the government to take this opportunity to make a complete adjustment of higher education in line with improvements in all other aspects.9 However, the situation was getting worse very fast and such a grand scale of improvement could not be carried out. Owing to the fact that the educational authority was not able to make a general plan, each school had but to make its own decision respectively.
Some schools had arranged boats to transport all its personnel and equipment once for all to the inner land and had conserved almost everything. Other schools removed through all difficulties and had lost most books and instruments. However, thanks to academic people’s unwillingness to serve the enemy and their informidable spirit in addition to Mr. Chiang’s full support, most of the universities and colleges in the war zone had removed to safe areas of the inner land. So, the education could be continued without interruption. With accessible materials, I want to bring forth some cases which could reflect the general situation at the time as follows:
National Central University
Mr. Lo Chia-len, the President, had a far-sighted view about the possible development of the war. Because the university was located at safe area at the outbreak of the war, the university had become the very one which had conserved personnel and equipment most completely among all universities and colleges.
President Lo described the situation then, “I was the one who had some knowledge about the national defense policy. I knew how the central government had prepared for the resistance against the Japanese. At eight o’clock on the morning of July 8, 1937, I heard of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and I knew that the last moment was there. When I returned to Nanking, I asked the department of general services to pack all important books and instruments into the big wooden boxes which had been made in the previous year at the outbreak of East Hopei Incident. In the meantime, I asked a few professors to look for adequate locations. As I received the various investigation reports, I decided, after a thorough consideration, to move the university to Chungking. The medical school was decided to be moved to Chengtu for the convenience of cooperation in using instruments. But the decision had met many objections of why the university should remove that far….Later, I went to Linyuan to call on Mr. Chiang and won his approval, and thenceforth I was able to do what I had planned.”10
Before the Japanese bombardment at Nanking, a few hundred boxes of books and instruments had already been packed and moved to the boats. At the time when Nanking was lost, National Central University had already resumed classes in Chungking and Chengtu for over one month. Except the music department could not resume, all the rest remained the same.
As regards the story of moving school cattle to Chungking was something not quite to the facts. Even pianos could not be moved out, and hence the well-reputed music department had to be discontinued. How come they took special care about cattle? It was true that the cattle finally arrived Chungking. However, it was not arranged according to the original plan. It was the school labor workers who were responsible for taking care of the cattle to make this come true. When Nanking was in danger, the patriotic and responsible worker was not willing to be left to serve the enemy and also did not want to abandon the cattle. So he had driven the herd of cattle for very long way up the Yangtze River. He had overcome all kinds of hardships and finally got the cattle to Chungking. He returned all cattle to the school without even losing one. “Someone had delivered the cattle!” The news spread all over Shaping and became a very pleasant topic.
The author was then studying at National Central University and admired very much what the person had done. However, I regretted that I did not write down his name. During the war, such touching stories of being loyal to one’s duties despite one’s own business were numerous. The worker of the university was but one of the unnumbered nameless heroes.
National Southwestern Union University
The university was made up of Peking University, Tsinghua University and Nankai University, which were all located in the area of Peiping and Tientsin Municipalities. In the prewar, owing to their locations near the Japanese sphere of influence, they had thoroughly experienced with Japanese invasion. The anti-Japanese sense of the people of the three universities was very strong.
Upon the occurrence of July 7 Incident, Dr. Hu Shih-chi, Mr. Fu Shih-lien, and Mr. Chen Ping-lin were at Nanking. They observed how the teachers and students of Northeastern University and Fengyung University had been oppressed by the Japanese. So they made the proposal to summon the teachers and the students of Peking, Tsinghua and Nankai Universities to make up a union university in Shangsha, Hunan. The proposal had been approved by the Ministry of Education and the newly established university was named the Changsha Temporary University. When classes started on November 1, 1937, teachers and students totaled at merely seven to eight hundred. As one described, “Professors were not many; books and instruments were almost none; living could hardly be maintained.”
Before long, Nanking was lost to the Japanese; the Wuhan Battle could break out at any moment. Issue on saving the nation or continuing studies was changed to “remaining in Changsha or leaving for Yunnan”. The student association opposed the school’s withdrawal plan because they wanted to stay in Changsha to participate in activities of saving the nation. They even sent representatives to make appeals to the Ministry of Education. Local newspapers also criticized unanimously that students should not escape from the fighting. At the time, the school authority invited two celebrities to give speeches. One was Mr. Chang Chi-chung, Governor of Hunan Province, who opposed the school’s removal. The other was General Cheng Chen, who had analyzed thoroughly the situation. Many students who finally followed the school to retreat to Yunnan had been affected by General Cheng Chen.11
Once the decision was made, teachers and students were divided into two groups to set out in July, 1938. The first group travelled by sea by way of Kwangchow, Hong Kong and Haifang. The others, about three hundred, had made the trip on foot by way of Kweichow to Kunming. It took them two months to complete the trip of three thousand three hundred li （里）.
The university was renamed as the Southwestern Union University and resumed classes on the fourth of May. Other students of three original universities arrived one by one and reported to the university to resume their studies.12 The university had been established in such a hurry that there was a serious shortage of books and instruments. However, most famous professors had travelled with the school. The university which inherited the good old tradition was still the ideal higher educational institute for many students. During the war, admissions to various universities had been administered generally by the Ministry of Education through a joint-entrance examination. About two thirds of students made the National Central University their first choice. The Southwestern University was the first choice for most of the other one third of students.
National Northwestern Union University
The university was made up of Peiping Normal University, Peiping University and Peiyang Institute of Technology. After Peiping and Tien-tsin’s loss to the Japanese, the Ministry of Education ordered those three universities to organize together National Sian Temporary University and to move to Sian. By the end of 1937, the Battle of Taiyuan broke out, the Temporary University moved southward and was renamed as National Northwestern Union University. The university’s administrative branch, College of Literature and Arts, College of Law and Business, and College of Engineering were all located at Chengku. The medical school was set up at Nancheng and the college of Agriculture was at Mienhsien.
In 1939, the Ministry of Education had adjusted higher education. National Northwestern Union University was reorganized into National Northwestern University and made Sian its permanent site. The university’s former affiliated Normal College, the Medical School and College of Engineering had been made separate and reorganized as National Northwestern Teachers College, National Northwestern Medical College and National Northwestern College of Engineering respectively. 13
After the war, the Medical College was again affiliated with National Northwestern University. National Northwestern College of Engineering chose Sian as its permanent site. National Northwestern Agricultural College was affiliated with National Northwestern Agricultural and Forest Junior College and was located at Wukong. Peiping Normal University was restored as National Peiping Teachers College; Peiyang Institute of Technology was restored as National Peiyang University; and Peiping University was not restored.
National Chekiang University
The National Chekiang University was located at Hongchow. It had not withdrawn until the Japanese forces approached near. Mr. Li Chi-fei explained the reason. In his “Records on the Westward Removal of Chekiang University”, Li had disclosed why the university delayed its removal plan: “In the first three months, we had not experienced the cruelty of the modern war. We still regarded our enemy as being humanistic. On the other hand, our seven hundred teachers and students assumed that we should be responsible for maintaining the stability of the hinterland. Besides, we were unwilling to bed farewell to the city’s scenic beauty of mountains and lakes. We also had faith in our soldiers on the battle front of Shanghai. With the wall made of their flesh and blood, the soldiers had halted successfully the Japanese attack for three months. Therefore, even many universities and high schools in Hongchow had retreated, Chekiang University still did not plan to do so. Suddenly, the Japanese landed at Chuankungtin on November 5, 1937 and caused at school an astounding atmosphere. Chuankungtin was only 120 kilometers away from Hongchow, so we had to say goodbye to the city.”
Since December 1, teachers and students of Chekiang University had moved in separate groups by way of Chiente, Chian, Taiho and Yishan to Chengyi, Kweichow. The university also set up campuses at Meitan and Yunhsin. In 1939, another campus was set up at Lungkong, Chekiang.14
National Wuhan University
The university was located at Wuchang, Hupei. In December, 1937, on the eve of the Wuhan Battle, the university discontinued classes because of the worsening of the war. In the following February, with the approval of the Ministry of Education, the university moved to Chiating, Szuchuan. On the way they encountered with Japanese air bombing twice and had lost heavily its books and equipment. Due to shortage of equipment, its College of Agriculture was affiliated with National Central University’s College of Agriculture.15
Other universities and colleges with recorded removal were listed as follows:
Private Nanking University moved to Chengtu in 1937.
Private Futan University and Tahsia University in Shanghai moved westward together in 1937, at first to Lusan and then to Chungking.Later, Tahsia University moved further to Huahsi, Kweichow.
Private Wuhsi Junior College of Chinese Literature moved to Kweilin, Kwangsi in 1938.
The Central Political Academy moved to Hsiaowenchuan in 1938.
Private Wenhua Librarian Junior College moved to Chungking in 1938.
Kiangsu Provincial Medical College and the Department of Medicine of Nantung College were affiliated with each other to become National Kiangsu Medical College at Yuanlin, Hunan in 1938. Later, the college moved to Peipei near Chungking in 1939.
National Tungchi University moved to Kunming, Yunnan in 1938, and again to Nanhsi, Szuchuan in 1940.
Private Kuanghua University set up a campus at Chengtu in 1938.
Kaingsu Provincial Silk Junior College moved to Losan from Hangchow in 1938.
National Junior College of Performing Arts moved to Changsha from Nanking and later to Chungking. The college finally moved to Kiangan, Szuchuan in 1938.
Private Chunghwa University moved from Wuchang to Kweilin in 1938 and to Tali, Yunna in 1939.
Private Chungfa University moved from Peiping to Kunming in 1939.
Private Minghsian Junior College of Agriculture and Technology moved to Kingtang, Szuchuan in 1939.
Private Hsiangya Medial College moved from Changsha to Kweiyang, Kweichow in 1939.
National Sansi University was re-established at Sanyuan, Shensi in 1939.
National Wusung Junior College of Merchant Marine was restored in Chungking in 1939 and was renamed as National Chungking Junior College of Merchant Marine.
National Chiaotung University set up a campus in Chungking in 1940.
Private Lihsien Junior College of Accounting moved from Shanghai to Peipei near Chungking in 1940.
Private Soochow University was cooperated with the College of Business of Hookiang University to establish the Union College of Law and Business in Chungking in 1942.
Private Hookiang University in Shanghai was restored in Chungking in 1942.
Teachers and students of Private Shanghai Painting Junior College fled in separate groups to Kinghwa and set up the Department of Fine Arts to be affiliated with National Southwestern Union University in 1942.
Private Shanghai Facheng College was approved by the Ministry of Education and moved to Tunki, Anhwei in 1943.
The Kweiyang campus of Private Chihchiang College of Arts and Sciences moved to Chungking in 1943.
Private Linnan University moved to Meihsien in the spring of 1945 as a result of the loss of Chukiang to the Japanese. After the war, the university moved back to Kwangchow.16
III. The Development of Higher Education and the Establishment of New Schools during the Sino-Japanese War
After the outbreak of the war, all people of the nation had made full efforts to construct remote provinces, to explore natural resources, to dedicate to the development of technology and produce our own weapons. The country was filled up with an animated spirit. The government had retreated to the inner land. However, the longer the war continued, the more courage had been shown with the people. As regards education, there was no exception. Under the situation of serious shortage of materials, great improvements had been made both in quality and quantity of higher education.
In April, 1938, the Extraordinary National Congress of Kuomintang had formulated “the Program of Resistance and National Reconstruction”, which included a general planning about various levels of education. Regarding higher education, there were as follows:
Teachers colleges should be set up independently. Colleges of education should be separated from universities and become independent teachers colleges.
The country should be divided into several university and teachers college districts. Universities and teachers colleges should be set up accordingly. Junior colleges should be set up by provinces while universities should be established by the Central Government. Schools of various levels should be in principle set up at the countryside so as to raise the rural culture.
Departments of universities and colleges which were varied with one another should be regulated and modificated.
Various levels of education should emphasize a balanced education among morality, intelligence and physical education. Moral education is aimed at cultivating a healthy personality for all citizens. The tutor system should be implemented at and above middle school level so as to make a more effective result of the training.
Military management should be put into practice strictly at senior high schools and higher levels.
Graduate schools and institutes should be developed by colleges, departments and research centers of those universities which had appropriate faculty, excellent academic performance and well-equipped instruments. The Ministry of Education shall consult the opinions of the above mentioned universities, graduate schools and institutes. A supreme reviewing body which shall be made up of scholars recommended by those institutions should be installed.
Students to be sent abroad by the government to study are limited to those who have well prepared in their research disciplines and subjects which are essential to the country’s needs but students could hardly work any further in China due to the restricted conditions of teaching and equipment. The supervisor system for students abroad must be improved. Supervisors should help students choose schools and evaluate the students’ academic pursuit in addition to their previous responsibilities of distributing students’ living allowance.
The Ministry of Education should invite related central governmental agencies to make up a central committee of co-operative education. The committee should formulate regulations for co-operative education. It shall also supervise to make up provincial and municipal committees for co-operative education and promote the co-operative program in provinces and municipalities.17
As the principles were well set, programs had been carried out step by step. During eight years of war, the prominent improvements in higher education are listed as follows:
In 1938, the Ministry of Education enacted “the Statute for Colleges of Normal Education”, which was a major improvement in higher normal education. The Ministry of Education ordered Central University, Southwestern Union University, Northwestern Union University, Chungsan University and Chekiang University to set up colleges of education respectively. The ministry also set up National Normal College at Lantien, Hunan and National Women Normal College at Kiangchin, Szuchuan.
The Ministry of Education adjusted higher educational institutions in 1938. It made the College of Engineering of Peiping University, Peiyang College of Engineering, the College of Engineering of Northeastern University and Private Chiaocho College of Engineering, all of them had moved to Sian at the time, to constitute National Northwestern College of Engineering. The ministry also made National Northwestern Junior College of Agriculture and Forestry and the College of Agriculture of National Northwestern Union University to constitute National Northwestern College of Agriculture. Kaingsu Provincial Medical College and the Department of Medicine were united and became National Kiangsu Medical College.
Tutor system had been put into practice at universities and colleges. Department of discipline and guidance had been set up and an additional dean was put in charge of the affairs.
Physical education curriculum had been unified at junior colleges and schools of higher levels.
The Ministry of Education convened the conference for studying curriculum. As a result, the ministry declared the required and the chosen courses of the curriculum of each department of colleges of arts, sciences, law, agriculture, engineering and business as well as the common courses for colleges of arts, sciences and law. Since 1944, in accordance with Mr. Chiang’s instruction, ethics was included as the common required course for all freshmen. The ministry also invited specialists of judicial education and representatives of the Ministry of Judicial Administration to hold seminars on judicial education. It resulted in the enactment of the curriculum of required and chosen courses for the judicial division of the department of law. The required courses of the original curriculum of the department of law had been amended for the first time.
The Ministry of Education set up the National Academic Council in 1940. The first conference of the council had passed several proposals, such as: “to Assist Academic Research and to Reward Writings and Invention”, “to Improve Teachings of Three Principles of the People”, and “to Promote Education of History and Geography”. The second conference had passed “Regulations of the Organization of the Reviewing Committee for Doctorate” and “Regulations for Doctorate Examination”. Since 1943, these for candidates of master degrees had also been dealt with by the Academic Council.
The Ministry of Education set up “ministry-employed professors”. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs enacted “Regulations for Employing Foreign Professors.”
The Ministry of Education united with the Ministries of Interior, Finance, Economics, Communication, Military Administration and the Commission of Aircraft to make the Central Co-operative Commission to promote the liaison, communication and the harmony of the demand and supply between education and reconstruction.
Since 1941, the Ministry of Education had dealt with awards for writings, invention and painting so as to elevate the level of higher education, research, sciences and technology, literature and fine arts.
During the war, due to the scarceness of foreign exchange, the Executive Yuan promulgated in 1938 “Regulations for Restricting Students Studying abroad”, which stipulated only students with majors of military studies, engineering, sciences and medicine might be sent abroad. Students of literature and law should be limited to those with special research needs. The regulations were abolished in 1942 with new stipulations. Only students who passed the examination for studying abroad could receive the certificates.
In 1944, the Ministry of Education started to set up Chinese Cultural Scholarships at various foreign universities, including London University and Oxford University in Great Britain; Harvard University, Yale University, Michigan State University, University of California, University of Chicago and Columbia University in the United States; and International University in Calcutta, India. There were totally fifty scholarships amounted at $1,500 each.
In 1944, the Ministry of Education held the first examination of governmental scholarship for studying abroad. There were sixty graduate students and sixty-nine practice students to go to Great Britain. For those going to the United States, there were forty-one graduate students of engineering and twenty graduate students of agriculture.18
In addition to the above mentioned institutions, other newly established and expanded universities and colleges are listed as follows:
Fukien Provincial Medical Junior College was established in September, 1937. In 1939, it was expanded to Fukien Provincial Medical College.
Kweiyang Medical College was established in 1938.
Chekiang Provincial Wartime University was established in 1938. In 1939, it was renamed as Chekiang Provincial Ying-shih University in memory of Mr. Chen Ying-shih, a revolutionary martyr. In 1945, it was reconstituted to a national university.
In 1939, Chungking University was expanded to set up a college of business.
National Sikang Handicrafts Junior College was established in 1939.
Fukien Provincial Music Junior College was established in 1940.
For the purpose of fostering personnel for the country’s reconstruction, Mr. Chiang Kai-shek asked to establish the Szuchuan-Sikang College of Agriculture and Technology at the suggestion of the Ministry of Education.
The Chengfu Trusted Cooperation set up the Private Chengfu Textile Junior College in 1940.
Kiangsu-Anhwei Temporary Union College of Politics was established at Chungan, Fukien in 1940. In 1941, it was reconstituted as Kiangsu-Anhwei Union Technical Junior College. In 1943, it was affiliated with Kiangsu Provincial College of Education to become Kiangsu Provincial College.
Hupei Provincial Junior College of Agriculture was reconstituted to Hupei Provincial College of Agriculture.
Fukien Provincial Normal Junior College was established in 1940.
The Department of Medicine of Northwestern Senior Vocational High School was changed to Private Northwestern Junior College of Medicine in 1940.
Private Chiuking Commercial College was established in Chungking in 1940.
Szuchuan Provincial Drama and Music School was affiliated with Szuchuan Provincial Chengtu Senior Technical Vocational School to become Szuchuan Provincial Junior College of Technology in 1941.
National Kweiyang Normal College was established in 1941. The College of Education of Tahsia University was affiliated with the college.
National Chekiang University was added with the Division of Chemical Engineering of Institute of Engineering in 1941.
National College of Social Education was established in 1941.
The affiliated Mongolia and Tibet School to the Central Political Academy was separated independently and renamed as National Frontier School, at the level of a junior college.
National Kweichow College of Agriculture and Technology was established in 1941 and was reconstituted into National Kweichow University in the following year.
Hupei Provincial College of Education was established in 1941 and was reconstituted into National Hupei Normal College.
National China University set up a campus at Kienyang, Fukien in 1941.
National Junior College of Physical Education was set up at Kiangking, Szuchuan in 1941 and was reconstituted into National Normal Junior College of Physical Education in the following year.
Shensi Provincial Political College was reconstituted into Shensi Provincial Junior College of Commerce, which was located in Sian.
National Junior College of Oriental Languages was established at Tali, Yunnan in 1942. There were four language divisions, Indian, Burman, Vietnamese and Thai. Each student was required to earn a second foreign language.
National Martial Arts and Physical Education Junior College was reconstituted into National Normal Junior College of Martial Arts and Physical Education in 1942. The college was added with a five year normal college. All students were granted with governmental scholarship.
National Chekiang University was expanded in 1942 with establishing the Biological Division at the Institute of Sciences, and the Agricultural Economic Division at the Institute of Agriculture.
Anhwei Provincial Temporary Political College was reconstituted into Anhwei Provincial Normal Junior College in 1942.
In 1941, the Ministry of Education had appropriated some money to Private Wushi Chinese Literature Junior College to add the two year program of official writing studies.
Private China University was added with establishing various departments of sciences. In accordance with the university system regulated by the Ministry of Education, the university was composed of Arts, Sciences and Law. In 1944, the university was added with the graduate school and set up the Institutes of Literature and Law.
In 1942, National Chungchen University was in cooperation with Kiangsi Provincial Government to set up special programs of normal education, public administration and taxation to meet the needs of Kiangsi Province. The university established a campus at Kanhsien for all freshmen.
Sinkiang Provincial Girls High School was expanded to Sinkiang Provincial Girls College in 1942.
Futan University, Kwangsi University and Kwangtung Provincial College of Arts and Sciences set up Overseas Students Preparatory class respectively in 1942.
In 1942, The Kweichow Provincial Government established Taikiang Elementary School Teachers Training Center for students of Miao race.
National Wuhan University set up Institutes of Literature and Sciences in 1942.
The Affiliated Special Program of Accounting of Szuchuan Provincial Normal College was reconstituted into Szhuchuan Provincial Junior College of Accounting in 1943 and was located in Chengtu.
The College of Engineering of National Yingshi University was made independently in 1943. With contribution made by alumni of Peiyang University to improve the college’s equipment, it was named as National Peiyang College of Engineering.
Hupei Provincial Medical College was established at Enshih in 1943.
Anhwei Provincial Normal Junior College was reconstituted in 1943 into Provincial College, which had two affiliated special programs of normal education and banking.
The Central Official Academy was established in 1943.
Private Chunghwa Junior College of Industry and Business was established in 1943.
National Yingshi University was entrusted by Chekiang Provincial Government to open special programs of administration, finance and accounting.
Private Nanfang Junior College of Commerce was established at Meihsien Kwangtung in 1944.
Kiangsi Provincial Junior College of Agriculture was established at Taiho, in 1944.
The China Central Technical Junior College set up a campus at Chihkung, Szuchuan in 1944. The college was renamed as National Chihkung Junior College of Technology in the following year.
National Junior College of Tele-Education was established in 1944 at Peiwenchun near Chungking.
National sea Frontier School was established in 1944 at Nanan, Fukien to meet the needs of various personnel regarding Chinese Southeastern sea front.
Kwangsi Institute of Education sponsored to set up Sikiang Academy to deal with the primitive laboratory testing of college education for all citizens.
National Northeastern University restored its College of Engineering in 1944 and first set up Departments of Civil Engineering and Electric Engineering.
The Junior College Division of Private Chenche Women’s Vocational School was expanded and reconstituted into Private Kiangsu Chenche Junior College of Arts in 1944.
National Futan University was added with the Institute of Business in 1944.
The Wanhsien campus of Private Shanghai College of Law became independent and was renamed as Private Fuchen College of Law in 1944.
The Provincial Government of Kwangtung set up in 1945 the Kwangtung Provincial Junior College of Marine Technology.19
In 1936, the year before the outbreak of the war, there were 108 universities and colleges and 41,922 students in addition to 22 graduate institutes and 35 departments. By the end of the war, the number of universities and colleges increased to 141 and students to 73,669 persons. In addition, there were 65 graduate institutes and 86 departments.20 From this statistics, we can see the rapid development of higher education during the war.
IV. The Government’s Special Care to University and College Students and the Improvement of the Living of Faculty and Administrative Staffs
During the Sino-Japanese War, the youth in the Japanese occupied areas did not want to bear the oppression of the Japanese and the puppet government. So, they fled to the hinterland by groups. They had suffered all kinds of hardships and could hardly continue studies. In February, 1938, the Ministry of Education had established the loan system to deal with this situation. For students of public high schools or above who came from the war areas and had no financial support might apply for certain amount of loan to maintain the living and thereby to continue education. The loan was required to pay back once the person was graduated and became better off in economic situation.
In October, 1938, the scope had been expanded to all students of public high schools or higher levels in the hinterland, and the faculty and the administrative staffs of the war zones. They were allowed to apply for the loan on condition that they had economic difficulty and were unable to maintain their livings.21 In 1943, in accordance with Mr. Chiang’s personal instruction, the Ministry of Education enacted “Regulations for Offering Reliefs to Poor Students and Children of School Teachers and Administrative Staffs”. Later in the year, the Ministry of Education replaced the loan system with other method. All students of public high schools or higher levels and of private colleges or higher levels were provided with government scholarships.22 During eight years of the war, though fighting was everywhere, students with the will of continuing education had been treated by the government with special care. There were channels for getting higher, career-wise. Therefore, talents had been fostered group by group. In the postwar, the reconstruction work had been mostly born by those young people. Students in the hinterland were not short of living necessities so they could dedicate themselves to studies. The hardships of teachers and students in war zones had neither been ignored by the government. In May, 1939, “The Ministry of Education War Zone Educational Directive Committee” was established and had promoted vigorously the education in war zones. In December, 1939, National Military Council set up in Chungking “The Training Committee for Unemployed and Non-school Youth in War Zone”. The committee was in charge of helping the youth who came for help get employed or enter the school. Even for those youth without any technic, some kind of jobs could be arranged for them after receiving training. In 1940, the committee was affiliated with the Ministry of Education and was renamed as “The Ministry of Education War Zone Students Directive Bureau”. Its main responsibility was to provide students with directive to help them continue education. Students of junior college or higher levels could study at schools of equivalent level in the rear zones. The bureau also took over the previous “Northeastern Youth Education Relief Bureau”. “The War Zone Youth Receiving Committee” had set up “The War Zone Teachers Registration Office”, which had some nine hundred teachers registered. They first received some temporary relief money from the office and later had been arranged for jobs by the Ministry of Education.23
In the wartime, living was tough. The government had done its best to improve the living of teachers and administrative staffs of schools of various levels. Personnel of universities and colleges had been treated with special care. In October, 1941, the Ministry of Education began to put into practice the “Regulations for Improving the Living of Teachers and Administrative Staffs in the Extraordinary Period”. Every teacher or staff of any public school could receive equivalent money for twenty-one Chinese liters rice each month. Dependents of teachers and administrative staffs could also receive same amount of money if they could meet the conditions of the regulations.
In 1942, the Ministry of Education was instructed to set apart two million dollars as rewards for teachers of colleges and universities who had served for long period of time. Teachers with service over twenty years were given an annual award of three thousand dollars; those with service over ten years were given an annual reward of one thousand five hundred dollars. In 1943, the ministry added an academic research to teachers of public junior colleges and above. In 1944, the National Government had enacted “The Statute for the Retirement and Consolation of Teachers and Administrative Staffs”. In 1945, the U.S.A. “General Administration of Aids and Reliefs to China” had contributed 265 million Chinese dollars as benefits to Chinese university teachers and staffs. The Ministry of Education had reported to the Executive Yuan to set apart additional thirty-five million dollars and made a total three hundred million dollars as benefits fund for teachers and staffs of public and private colleges and schools of higher levels as well as those research institutes.24 Although university professors had lived a simple life during the war, they were not, nonetheless, short of daily necessities thanks to the government’s special care in many aspects. Therefore, they could make all their efforts to teaching and academic research.
V. The Contribution of Higher Education to the Country and the Society during the Sino-Japanese War
During the war, the government and Mr. Chiang had given higher education special cares. On the other hand, people of higher education had fed back the country and the society with great contribution. There were some important items listed as follows:
To take part in wartime activities
At the outbreak of the war, the faculty and administrative staffs of medical junior colleges and higher medical institutes, senior nursing technology schools and obstetrical vocational schools had made up “Medical Educational Rescue Corps” and engaged in wartime rescue activities. The headquarter of the corps was located in Nanking and the teams spread all over the country. Later, owing to the frequent Japanese bombing, teachers and students of universities and colleges in the hinterland had constituted “Air-raid services Teams”. They assisted governmental agencies by participating in those activities of supply, communication, extinguishing the fire, emergency rescue, distributing governmental reliefs, disbanding, consolation and rescuing orphans.
In 1941, military airports were in construction in Szuzhuan and Kiangsi provinces, many college graduates of engineering had been summoned by the Ministry of Military Administration to participate in the work. In 1944, for the purpose of elevating the quality of personnel of military law as well as meeting the wartime special needs, the Ministry of Military Administration also summoned many graduates of law departments. By the time of the outbreak of the Pacific War, the arrival of American and British allied forces needed interpreters. All those had been recruited from graduates and students of universities and colleges. By the final stage of the war, when the government made preparation for counter-fighting, many university and college students volunteered to join the armed forces and engaged in fighting. Thus resulted in the patriotic movement of “One Hundred Thousand Youth; One Hundred Thousand Soldiers”. 25
To strengthen cooperation between education and construction
Since the Central Education and Constructive Co-operative Committee was established in 1938, it had promoted earnestly the liaison, communication, and harmony of demand and supply between education and construction. In 1939, the Ministry of Education enacted “Regulations for the Cooperation between Colleges of Sciences and Engineering, and enterprises of Economics and Communication and Military Factories”. The regulations stipulated that universities and colleges should send senior students to practice at factories; factories should assign specialists to help them take part in production.
In 1940, National Northwestern Agricultural College, in cooperation with the Ministry of Economics Water Engineering Testing Center, set up “Wukung Water Engineering Laboratory”. In 1942, Chungking University, in cooperation with the Highway General Bureau, set up the “Highway Research Laboratory”. The Ministry of Education also vigorously promoted the technic and educational organizations of agriculture and forestry to proceed with programs of communication and cooperation. In 1943, the Ministry of Economics and the Ministry of Education convened in Chungking the “Conference of Industrial Construction Programs” and had made a general planning for industrial construction in the future.26 Thanks to the sufficient cooperation of education and construction, the level of construction affairs had been elevated to some extent.
To promote social education
In 1938, the Ministry of Education notified schools of various levels to deal with social education. According to the ministry’s stipulations, universities and colleges should deal with, in accordance with the specialty of the school, two or more items of the following matters:
Academic seminars
Supplementary education
Correspondence schools
Edition of common readings
Agricultural promotion
Co-operation direction
Legal advisory for people
Local self-government guidance
Movie and broadcasting technics teaching
Teaching technics about prevention of air-raid and poisoning
Rescue training
Public sanitation direction
Local water and civil engineering direction
Exhibitions
Others.
In 1940, the Central Political Academy established “Guidance Corps for Campus Neighboring People’s Self Governance” to promote the public welfare for campus neighboring people. In 1942, the Ministry of Education Music Committee’s Paisha Music Education Promotion Subcommittee had held “Paisha Ten Thousand People Chorus Concert”. Participants included National Women Normal College, School for University Preparation, National 17th High School and ten some other groups. The number was so large that had impressed the local people very deeply. In the same year, Northeastern University, in celebration of its birthday, sponsored the Northern Szuchuan Games. Every high school in the area had sent representatives to participate in the competition. It had raised greatly the local people’s interests in physical education. In 1943, students of Wuhan University and National Central Technical Junior College had made up the Flying Club in each school which promoted greatly the newly focused games.27
To elevate educational and living standards of frontier provinces
In 1938, the Ministry of Education selected one hundred graduates of various national universities, with excellent academic performance, good behavior and also in good physical conditions. The students had been assigned to Szuchuan, Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangsi, Shensi, Kansu and Ninghsia to work as teachers at local high schools to elevate local education. In 1941, the Ministry of Education sponsored “Service Corps for Frontier Areas”. Fifty university and college students were selected to go to Sungfan and Lifan and other remote places to engage in practical investigation and services for a period of two months. They had many discoveries about local economic, geography, educational and cultural matters. Those discoveries were very useful information for the area’s later improvement.
In 1944, the Ministry of Education had made orders of hanging paintings of nutrition, sanitation and food, amounted to one hundred pieces each category, from Private Yenking University. The paintings had been distributed among educational agencies and schools in frontier areas. Many university graduates were willing to work in frontier areas. Not only could they help frontier people, but also thereby satisfied their curiosity of touching fresh matters. Professors were also very much interested in frontier areas. They took every opportunity to participate in survey and investigation to frontier areas and thereby had many discoveries in local geography, history and underground mineral resources.28
To promote people-to-people diplomacy
In 1940, the China Committees of London’s various universities dispatched letters to invite Chinese scholars to visit Great Britain to give lectures on Chinese current situations. Oxford and Cambridge Universities had made up Sino-British Cultural Cooperation Committee respectively, which made suggestion to engage in the program of exchanging a few scholars with China annually. Oxford University intended to dispatch two professors to China in consultation about Sino-British cultural cooperation matters. In 1941, the Ministry of Education sent Professor Hsu Hsien-kung to Burma at the invitation of Rangoon University to give lectures. In the same year, Professor Kuo Jen-yuan was invited to visit Great Britain to consult the British Government about cultural cooperation matters between the two countries. The British Government consent that she would grant several tens research scholarships to Chinese students annually once Chinese outward traffic would be reopened.
In 1942, the British Parliament visited China and gave high compliments to Chinese wartime education. In the same year, the Pacific Association convened in Canada, Chinese representative Mr. Chiang Mon-ling was elected as the Vice Chairman. Also in 1942, the British Cultural Committee had installed in various British universities more than ten scholarships for Chinese students for a research period of two years. In addition, the British Industry Promotion Association offered assistance to thirty-one graduates of engineering to go to England and to practice in factories.
In 1943, the State Department of the United States invited Central University, Southwestern Union University, Chekiang University, Wuhan University, Szuchuan University and Yunnan University to send one professor each school to go to the United States to give lectures. The Ministry of Education had dispatched Professors Tsai Chiao, King Yueh-lin, Chang Chi-yun, Liu Lai-cheng, Hsiao Tso-liang and Fai Hsiao-tung to go to the United States. In the following year, the ministry had sent Professors Mei Yi-peo, Yen Chi-tse, Cheng Tso-hsin, Yuan Tun-li and Lin Tung-chi to the United States at the invitation of the State Department.
In 1943, the Chinese Government and Indian Government had exchanged ten students. In 1944, the British Cultural Committee invited Chinese scholars by letter to go to England to give lectures. The Ministry of Education in cooperation with National Aircraft Commission selected Professors Hu Kang-fu of Chekiang University and Chou Chao-si of Chungking University to England. In the same year, the American Kellogg College made suggestion that the college was willing to cooperate with Wuhan University, by the way of Sino-American scientific cooperation, to build up a laboratory at Losan, Szuchuan. The purchase, transportation and installment of the needed instruments and material would put the U.S. Navy in charge. The American side also trained observing personnel in order to transfer the laboratory to Wuhan University on appropriate time.29 After the outbreak of the war in the Pacific, British and American soldiers had fought side by side with Chinese soldiers. They had deep impression on Mr. Chiang’s able leadership, Chinese soldiers’ bravery and Chinese people’s assiduousness. Thanks to Chinese university professors and students going abroad to give lectures and to study, it strengthened foreigners’ understanding about China. The Westerners’ prejudice against us since the Opium War had disappeared gradually. China could rank as one of four great powers was not only due to her military performance.
VI. Conclusion
Thanks to Mr. Chiang’s setting high value on education and vigorous support, higher education had been well developed in both quality and quantity during the Sino-Japanese War. Look back the emergency of fighting in the wartime as well as the very restricted material and human resources, such a progress in higher education was quite a miracle. In the past few decades, gifted personnel fostering in the wartime had performed superiorly both in the country and abroad. The reconstruction in the postwar had fallen mostly upon them. The spectacular achievements of the Republic of China today had proved vividly Mr. Chiang’s far-sightedness at the time. Today, in celebration of Mr. Chiang’s centenary birthday, I sincerely put down these historical records as a small way to show my admiration for the great man. (translated by 厲威廉)
NOTES
“Chapter Tai Testmony”, Chou Book.
Wu Cheng-chiu, Educational Development History of Chinese Universities.
a. The Autobiography of Chairman Chiang
b. Chiang Ching-kuo, My Father.
c. Chin Hsiao-yi, Our Leader
4. “Education for Saving the Country”, given by Mr. Chiang at the Weekly Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Ceremony at the Summer Training, Lusan on July 5, 1937, President Chiang’s Selected Speeches Series, China Cultural Service.
5. Mr. Chiang Kai-shek’s Annuals, ed., Biography Literature Publisher.
6. Chin Hsiao-yi, ed., “Thoughts of Chinese Education”, the Republic of China’s Vital Historical Materials – the Period of Resistance War against the Japanese, Committee of Party History, Central Committee of Kuomintang.
7. “To Save Our Country Must Put into Practice of the Balanced Education on Literature and Martial Arts as well as on Technology and Morality” by Mr. Chiang at presence the Kuomintang Szuchuan Provincial Weekly Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Ceremony at Chengtu, June 17, 1935, President Chiang’s Selected Speeches Series, China Cultural Services.
8. The Second China Education Annals, p. 512.
9. a. Huang Chueh-ming, “Topics from Wartime School Buildings to Innovation of School system”, Education Magazine, Series 27, No. 11 & 12.
b. Li-Kung-pu, Theory and Practice of the Wartime
Education.
c. Chang Yuan-chi, “Educational Responsibility of Today and
the Future”, Oriental Magazine, Series 34, No. 16 & 17.
10. Lo Chia-len, “The Growth of Central University under Bombing”, Education Magazine, Series 31, No. 7.
11. Cha Liang-chien, “The Southwestern Union University after the Outbreak of the Resistance War”, Education Magazine, Series 31, No. 1.
12. The Second China Education Annals, p. 598.
13. Ibid., p. 602.
14. Hsieh You-wei, “National Chekiang University”, Universities of the Republic of China.
15. Sun Hsiang-che, “Wuhan University after the Outbreak of the Resistance War”, Education Magazine, Series 31, No. 1.
16. The Second China Education Annals, p. 596-780.
17. Ibid., pp 8-11.
18. a. The Second China Education Annals.
b. Universities of the Republic of China.
c. Modern Chinese Educational History Materials.
d. Higher Education during the Period of the Resistance War.
19. The Second China Education Annals.
20. “Educational Report of the Executive Yuan”, the Second Plenary Meeting of the Sixth National Congress of Kuomintang, March 1946, Modern China.
21. a. Modern Chinese Educational History Materials, pp 43-44.
b. The Second China Education Annals, p. 53.
22. a. Modern Chinese Educational History Materials, p. 44.
b. The Second China Education Annals, p. 53.
23. Same as Note 18.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
Editor’s note: Typographical errors in the original article were corrected.